Factors contributing to plant poisoning are starvation, accidental eating and browsing habits of animals. Starvation is the most common reason. Most woodland or swampy-ground pastures contain many species of poisonous plants. These are usually eaten only when animals have nothing else to eat.

Certain plants are accidentally eaten by animals as they graze. A notable example of this is water hemlock. This plant emerges in wet areas which are the first to become green in early spring. Animals eager to eat the fresh young grass may accidentally bite off the crown of this plant with fatal results. Another type of accidental poisoning occurs when large amounts of cockle are present in wheat which is fed as grain.

Some animals on good feed in a dry lot or excellent pasture become bored with the same regular diet. They may eat unpalatable weeds or ornamental plants growing along fences. Goats and cattle like to vary the best kind of diet with a little ''browse''. Many ornamental or wild shrubs may be consumed, not because they are palatable but because the animal craves variation in its diet.

The severity of poisoning is related to the quantity of material eaten, the specie of animal eating the plant, portion of the plant and condition of the plant eaten, level of ground moisture, general health of the animal prior to ingesting the substance and the age and size of the animal. Therefore some livestock can eat some of the bad plants and under several of the mentioned conditions, fail to show symptoms of injury or poisoning. At other times death may occur.

Scores of plants contain material toxic to animals if eaten in sufficient quantity. Some of the plants are well known, some quite rare, some are useful, others are valued ornamentals. They may be grouped by the type of poison contained, the effect of their toxins or the part of the plant containing the poison. Some plants may contain several poisonous principals.

Leaves of Three, Let it Be!

Recognizing and removing Poison Ivy

*Poison Ivy causes and itchy skin rash.*

Wild vines are at home in the dappled shade of the woods/lawn interface. It is not uncommon for the suburban homeowner to find long chains of serrated leaves snaking out of the woods and across the lawn. Careful identification of the culprit vine is the first step in the removal process, and could prevent an itchy case of poison ivy rash.

In the mid-Atlantic states, several creeping vines are easily confused with poison ivy, including blackberry, wild strawberry and Virginia Creeper.

The first step in distinguishing poison ivy is to recall the old epigram: Leaves of three - let it be! Poison ivy displays its saw-toothed leaflets in groups of three. Virginia Creeper, which otherwise looks remarkably similar to poison ivy, grows its leaves in groups of five.

Blackberry has serrated leaves grouped in threes, but blackberry grows as a tall shoot, not as a vine. Blackberry also has thorns on its stems, and in season, black berries.

*Virginia Creeper, a harmless look-alike*

Wild Strawberry also displays serrated leaves in groups of three. However, wild strawberry grows very close to the ground, while poison ivy holds its leaves 3-10 inches off the ground. Also, wild strawberry leaves are rounder and darker green than poison ivy leaves.

Okay, so you identify poison ivy growing in your yard - how do you get rid of it? The usual mechanical methods of weed removal - clipping, chopping, string trimming, pulling-up and burning - are a disaster when it comes to poison ivy. Poison ivy, and its cousins poison oak and poison sumac, have evolved a chemical on their leaf and stem surfaces, meant to keep away insects. Upon contact with human skin, the plant's defensive chemical will produce an itchy red rash, with bumps and pustules, which is easily spread by scratching. Some people experience a strong allergic reaction to poison ivy, with extreme swelling, hives, and difficulty breathing, leading to a swift emergency room visit. Thus, you will want to avoid removal methods that will involve skin contact, and to especially avoid the string trimmer, which launches the leaves, stems and poison chemical into the air.

So how do you get rid of poison ivy, without the risk? Go to your local Southern States dealer and pick up some Poison Ivy/Oak Killer by Bonide in the 1 quart size and some coated waterproof garden gloves.

Creeping vines can provide a nice green transition zone from suburban lawn to shady woods. Ground cover prevents erosion and provides shelter for birds and small mammals. Just be careful that your plants do not expend their chemical defenses on your skin, your children or your pets. Teach your children the timeless adage: "Leaves of three - let it be!"

Cyanogenetic Plants (Glucosides - Glycosides)
Arrow grass, Black Locust, Blue Cohosh, Broomcarn, Buckeye (Horse chestnut,) Cherry Choke, Cherry Corn, Cockle, Dogbane, Elderberry, Hemp, Horse Nettle, Indian Hemp, Ivy Johnson grass, Kafir Laurel Leucothoe, Lily of the Valley, Maleberry, Marijuana Milkweeds, Milo, Nightshade, Oleander, Rhododendron, Sevenbark, Silver Sneezewood, Sorghum, Stagger brush, Sudan grass, Velvet grass, White snakeroot, Wild Black Cherry, and Wild Hydrangea.

These contain under certain conditions, prussic acid (hydrocyanic acid), a deadly poison which interferes with the oxygen-carrying ability of the blood. Death in these cases is usually rapid and with little outward symptoms. Members of the prunus family of plants, especially wild cherries, are dangerous. Peaches, plums and other stone fruits belong to this group of plants. Wilting of the green leaves caused by frost, storm damage, or by cutting, changes a glucoside found in the leaves to hydrocyanic acid (HCN) and sugar. The sweet, wilted leaves are thus more attractive to animals than normal foliage. HCN content varies widely; but under some conditions a few handfuls of leaves may be enough to kill a horse or cow. This type of poisoning should be suspected when sudden death of animals follows windstorms or early sharp frosts. These leaves apparently lose their poison after they have become dry; the limp, green or partially yellowed leaves are the most dangerous. Sudan grass and sorghums are also cyanogenetic plants. These plants are usually deadly when damaged or frozen. Aftermath sprouts following an early frost are particularly dangerous. Very little sudan grass poisoning occurs from animals trampling down plants and later eating them although this is often listed as dangerous. In dry weather, sudan grass is often pastured to the ground without ill effects. After sudan grass has been repeatedly frozen and the plants are completely dead, it is safe but not very valuable for pasture.

Once frozen, sorghum, sorghum sudan hybrids, or their aftermath should never be pastured. As long as the plants show any green color they may be very poisonous. Both frosted sorghum and sudan grass can be best and most safely utilized by ensiling them for at least two weeks before feeding. Normal ensilage fermentation safely eliminates the poisonous principle.

bitter sneezeweed
Helenium amarum

Annual, 15 cm to 1 m tall, much branched herb with taproot. Stem leaves narrow, numerous, 2 to 7 cm long, 1 to 4 mm wide, bases not continuing as lines down the stem. Leaves, when crushed, with a strong disagreeable odor. Flower similar to H. autumnale. Found Virginia to Florida to Texas and extending into southern parts of adjacent northern states; most abundant in coastal plain where it may be very abundant weed in pastures, roadsides and waste places. All parts of this plant are toxic. a severe irritant to the mucous membranes. Dullness, trembling and weakness are first observed. In many instances, vomiting is prominent. For this reason, it has been called "spewing sickness " by sheepmen. Many vomiting animals inhale part of the regurgitated material into the trachea and develop inhalation pneumonia. These animals usually survive only to become chronically poor performers and perhaps die later from secondary ailments.

The toxic principle is a glucoside, dugaldin, and a phenol. Sneezeweed appears to cause more severe signs than does bitterweed. In the Rocky Mountain area, sheep have been severely poisoned by consumption of all portions of the sneezeweed plant. Cattle may also be affected but require a much larger amount.

The plant retains its toxicity even after drying, therefore, heavily contaminated hay can cause problems. Most cases occur when animals are an summer pasture and other forage is not available.

Sneezeweed is a severe irritant to the mucous membranes. Dullness, trembling and weakness are first observed. In many instances, vomiting is prominent. For this reason, it has been called "spewing sickness" by sheepmen. Many vomiting animals inhale part of the regurgitated material into the trachea and develop inhalation pneumonia. These animals usually survive only to become chronically poor performers and perhaps die later from secondary ailments.

Bitterweed can cause similar problems under experimental conditions. Cattle consume bitterweed only if other forage is unavailable.

And other species a perennial that grows three or four feet high, has a heavy stem and leaves and is frequently found in pastures. The milky white sap is sticky and has a bitter taste but livestock eat the topmost, tender leaves if good forage isn't abundant. Remove plants by spading, pulling, cutting or plowing extensive areas and planting to cultivated crops for a year or two.

Nearly all members of the milkweed genus (Asckpias) are erect or spreading, perennial herbs with milky sap and arising from thick rootstocks or rhizomes. Leaves opposite, whorled or rarely alternate, simple, linear to widely ovate, entire. Flowers borne in dense, often showy umbels, often white or greenish white but may also be red, orange, lavender or pale green. Fruit, an elongated follicle splitting on one side and releasing many seeds topped with white, silky hairs that enables them to be widely dispersed by the wind. The milkweed genus is found throughout the southern area in fields, along roadsides, fence rows, open woods, pastures and waste places.

Various species of milkweeds have yielded resinoids, alkaloids and glycosides. All parts of the plant are toxic, whether consumed green or dried in hay. Cattle, sheep, goats, horses and poultry are all sensitive to the effects of milkweed. Consuming the toxic plant in the amount of 2% of body weight can cause symptoms.

Losses usually occur when animals are forced to graze the plant due to lack of other forage. Usual signs include staggering, depression, weakness, labored respiration and dilated pupils. Animals go down and exhibit tetanic spasms before going into a coma and dying.

Is a perennial plant, two-feet-high, with spiny stems and leaves, and smooth, orange-yellow berries. Perennial, thorny herb, .2 to .8 m tall. Leaves alternate, simple, irregularly pinnately lobed, 7 to 12 cm long, 3 to 8 cm wide, stellate pubescent. Flowers white to purple, 2.3 to 3.1 cm broad; borne in few-flowered, terminal racemes. Fruit green, turning yellow, like a small tomato, 1 to 1.5 cm in diameter. Found throughout the south; common in pastures, old fields, waste places and sometimes in cultivated ground.

A toxic alkaloid, solanine, has been isolated from this group of plants. Toxicity of these plants varies depending upon maturity, environment and portion of plant ingested. The berries are the most toxic part and are more toxic when they have matured. The berries of both Carolina horse nettle and black nightshade are green when immature. However, horse nettle berries turn yellow when mature and nightshade berries become black. Leaves are also toxic, but to a lesser degree.

All classes of livestock and humans have been poisoned. Two syndromes have been described: acute and chronic. The acutely poisoned animal is characterized by irritation of the mouth and gastrointestinal lesions. In the chronic form, unthrift ness, jaundiced mucous membranes, abdominal dropsy and constipation have all been seen.

Fruits are more toxic than the foliage. It's a common plant in grasslands and fields and is a member of the nightshade family. All classes of livestock and humans have been poisoned. Two syndromes have been described: acute and chronic. The acutely poisoned animal is characterized by irritation of the mouth and gastrointestinal lesions. In the chronic form, unthrift ness, jaundiced mucous membranes, abdominal dropsy and constipation have all been seen.

BLACK CHERRY
Prunus serotina

Medium sized tree with dark, smooth bark. Bruised twigs and leaves with a distinctive acrid taste and odor. Leaves alternate, deciduous, light green, elliptic to lanceolate, 6 to 12 cm long, 2 to 5.5 cm wide, crenate to crenate-serrate, two small glands near the juncture of blade and petiole. Flowers small, white, in terminal racemes 4 to 10 cm long. Ripe fruit black, shiny, juicy, .7 to 1 cm long. Distributed throughout the south, most common in fence rows, open woods and pastures.

choke cherry Prunus virginiana

Shrub with extensive rhizomes and thus often appearing in clumps. Leaves are smaller than P. serotina with smaller, sharper teeth and ripe fruit are dark red to purple. Uncommon except perhaps along streams in Tennessee or in moist places in Oklahoma and Texas.

cherry laurel
Prunus caroliniana laurocerasus

Small to medium-sized tree, sometimes clipped to form dense hedges, 1 to 3 m tall. Leaves alternate, evergreen, dark green, shiny, elliptic to elliptic lanceolate, 5 to 10 cm long, 1.5 to 4 cm. wide; leaf margins variable, entire to serrate or denticulate. Flowers small, white, in axillary racemes 1.5 to 3 cm long. Ripe fruit dull black, only slightly fleshy. Georgia to Florida and west to Texas; most common in fence rows, low moist woods and maritime forest of coastal plain; often planted and escaping widely.

The toxic principle is hydrocyanic acid (also called prussic acid) which is created by enzymic action on the glucoside, amygdalin. It is present primarily in the leaves of trees that have fallen and are in a wilted condition. The bark and twigs are also toxic. Poisoning may occur in the spring, summer or fall.

Ruminants (cattle, sheep, goats) are most often affected, but single stomach animals, such as the horse, can also be affected.

Symptoms are difficult breathing, bloat, an anxious expression, moaning, staggering, recumbency and convulsions before death. Animals may die within one hour after consuming the leaves. The mucous membranes are bright red in color, as is the blood.

The intravenous injection of sodium nitrite and sodium thiosulfate is suggested. It must be given as early as possible. Treatments may need to be repeated within a few hours.

Large, densely branched shrub or small tree up to 5 m tall. Leaves thick, leathery, evergreen, mostly alternate or in whorls of threes, elliptical, 8 to 15 cm long, 1.5 to 5 cm wide; margins entire and rolled in. Flowers white to pink, 2 to 3 cm in diameter, in large showy clusters. Found in all the southern states but less common in the coastal plain; most common on dry, rocky slopes and ridges and in open woods.

sheep laurel
Kalmia angustifolia

Very similar to mountain laurel and also toxic. Shrub to 1.5 m tall. Usually a smaller plant than Kalmia latifolia with narrower and smaller leaves and smaller flowers that are more often pink than white. This species usually occupies wetter sites and mostly limited to mountainous areas of Georgia, the Carolinas and Virginia.

The resinoid, andromedotoxin, and a glucoside, arbutin, are the toxic principles responsible for symptoms. Sheep, goats and cattle are susceptible to poisoning if they consume the plant, especially the leaves.

There are recorded cases of toxicity in humans and monkeys. Most clinical cases of laurel toxicity are seen in the winter and early spring months. When other forage is not available, livestock may consume the toxic evergreen laurels.

Signs of toxicity occur usually within six hours after consuming the plants. Symptoms include in coordination, excessive salivation, vomiting, bloat, weakness, muscular spasms, coma and death. The animals are often found down, unable to stand, with their head weaving from side to side.

Animals should not be drenched or given medicine by mouth in severe cases since they may be unable to swallow due to weakness of the throat muscles. The administration of mineral oil or saline laxatives by stomach tube is suggested. In addition, intravenous electrolyte solutions may be used.

is an evergreen shrub of the Appalachian Mountain region. Plants grow five-feet tall and have glossy green leaves. Flowers appear in clusters at the ends of branches. Livestock eat the leaves in early spring when little other foliage is available. Weakness, nausea, salivation and vomiting are symptoms of poisoning. The preventative is to keep livestock out of areas where mountain laurel is abundant.

Mayapple, bloodroot, pokeweed, nightshade and hellebore are other alkaloidal plants. They are rarely eaten except when animals are starving for better feed. Deaths from alkaloidal plants usually result from severe digestive disturbances, pain and nervous symptoms. Animals usually die in convulsions.

Is an annual plant, two-feet high, with many branches. Leaves are variably smooth or
hairy. The stems angled in cross-section and sometimes spiny. Clusters of white flowers, one-fourth inch across, bloom in midsummer and are followed by small, black fruits. Both the foliage and green berries are toxic. The ripe berries are not poisonous. Black nightshade is widely distributed.

Annual, thorn less, essentially glabrous herb, .1 to 1 m tall. Leaves alternate, sinuately or coarsely toothed, 5 to 10 cm long, 2 to 5 cm wide. Flowers white, 6 to 8 mm broad. Fruit shiny, black when ripe, several seeded, 5 to 9 mm in diameter. Found throughout the south, seldom abundant; fields, waste places, cultivated ground.

All classes of livestock and humans have been poisoned. Two syndromes have been described: acute and chronic. The acutely poisoned animal is characterized by irritation of the mouth and gastrointestinal lesions. In the chronic form, unthriftiness, jaundiced mucous membranes, abdominal dropsy and constipation have all been seen.

The most commonly observed symptom is a severe gastroenteritis with cramping, diarrhea and convulsions. Postmortem

lesions include severe ulcerative gastritis, mucosal hemorrhage and a dark liver. In most cases the animal recovers within 24-48 hours.

showy crotalaria
Crotalaria spectabilis

Annual herb, .2 to .5 m tall, densely pubescent. Leaves simple, alternate, linear to lanceolate, upper mostly 3 to 6 cm long, 4 to 10 mm wide; lower leaves spatulate, 2 to 3 cm long, 6 to 15 min wide. Stipules conspicuous, tardily deciduous, fused to stem. Flowers showy, 1.5 to 2.5 cm long, yellow in terminal racemes. Widely distributed from Florida to Texas in coastal plain and piedmont; abundant along roadsides and in fields, waste places; once cultivated as a green manure crop. Plant on the left is Crotalaria striata, also toxic.

All parts of the plant are poisonous, whether green or dried in hay. The seeds are especially poisonous. The toxic principle is the alkaloid monocrotaline. Chickens, horses, cattle and swine are the species usually affected, but sheep, goats, mules and dogs can be affected to a lesser degree. Poisoning occurs from consuming the green plant, hay contaminated with crotalaria, or dried seed in harvested grain.

Death in chickens can occur from as few as 80 seeds. Fatalities may occur within a few days or up to several weeks after ingestion. Symptoms include diarrhea, a pale comb (signifying anemia), ruffled feathers and depression. Quail are also easily poisoned, but turkeys are more tolerant.

Horses and Goats develop chronic unthriftiness, become uncoordinated, walk aimlessly and may "head press" against various objects. Mucous membranes often exhibit jaundice, related to severe liver damage

In cattle, and Goats three syndromes are recognized: acute, chronic and intermediate types. The chronic type is most commonly seen with animals dying several months after consuming the toxic material, usually hay contaminated with crotalaria. Symptoms include bloody diarrhea, icterus, rough hair coat, unthriftiness, edema and weakness.

Swine may exhibit an acute death characterized by sudden gastric hemorrhage and death or a chronic form with symptoms of anemia, ascites, loss of hair and unthriftiness.

Alkaloid Containing Plants Aconite Allspice, Black Snake Root, Bloodroot, Blue Cohosh, Boxwood, Celandine, Common Poppy, Crotalaria, Crow Poison, Death Camas, Dicentra, False Hellebore, False Jessamine, Fume wort, Hellebore, Hemp, Horse Nettle, Indian Hemp, Indian poke, Jimson weed, Larkspur, Lobelia, Lupines, Marijuana, Monkshood, Moonseed, Night shade, Pink Death, Camas, Poison Darnel, Poison Hemlock, Poison rye grass, Rattleweed, Rock Poppy, Spider Lily, Spotted cowbane, Spotted Water Hemlock, Stagger grass, Staggerweed, Sweet Shrub, Thorn Apple, Varebells, Wild Parsnip, Wolfs-bane, Yellow Jessamine.

Fortunately these plants are unpalatable for most wild and domestic animals. Water hemlock and poison hemlock are deadly. Poisoning rarely occurs except in early spring when young plants are accidentally eaten, but the roots, stems, leaves and flowers are always poisonous. Look for and learn to identify these plants in the summer when they are large and showy. The hemlocks are members of the carrot family and have showy, white, umbrella-like flower heads. Poison hemlock needs dry land to grow and is often found in gardens as an ornamental plant. Flowers are often incorporated into large mixed flower sprays in rural churches and at social events.

a perennial frequently found in wet, fertile soil - is a five-foot-tall plant with thick rootstocks, doubly compound leaves (fernlike) and small white flowers in umbrella-like clusters. The roots are the most poisonous parts of the plants. Cut the thick rootstocks lengthwise and you'll find air cavities separated by plate-like partitions of solid tissue. Drops of yellowish, aromatic, resin-like exudate containing the poisonous alkaloid appear at the cuts. Leaves and seeds contain little of the toxic substance and eaten in small quantities, either green or in hay, do little harm.

Water hemlock starts growth in early spring. Its green foliage may show up before most other plants leaf out. Livestock tug at the tender leaves and pull roots from the soil which are still soft from late winter rains. The combinations of foliage and roots in considerable quantity can be fatal. As a preventative, pull water hemlock plants from the soil during he summer when they can readily be found and destroy them. Plants usually are not numerous in an area.

is a hollow-stemmed biennial, four-feet high, with double compound leaves resembling parsley and a large, white taproot like parsnip. Flowers are showy, umbrella-like clusters and appear in late summer. The poison is a volatile alkaloid, coniine, found in the foliage all season and in the seeds in late summer. Most livestock poisoning comes in the spring from eating fresh foliage.

Plants That Are Photodynamic
Photosensitizing Plants Buckwheat, Goat weed, Klamath weed, Lantana, Rape, St. John's Wort,

This means photo-sensitive animals get a reaction. Conditions necessary for a reaction to occur are: 1) the animals must have white areas of skin (unpigmented); 2) the animals must eat a sufficient quantity of the plants; and 3) the animals must be exposed to bright sun. In typical cases, an animal suddenly becomes sore on the white areas of their bodies. Whole areas of white skin may raise up and slough off. White goats may become severely affected and die from this condition.

Some common plants which cause photosensitization are rape, alsike clover, buckwheat, lantana, St. John's wort, and ornamental hypericums. Both St. John's wort and ornamental hypericums have showy, golden-yellow flowers. They are not readily eaten by animals. White goats frequently become badly ''sunburned'' when they are on rape pasture in bright, sunny weather with little or no shade. Alsike clover or other legumes may produce these symptoms in dairy goats under the above conditions.

lantana
camara

Erect or spreading shrub, .5 to 1. 2 m tall, with recurved prickles on the angles of the square stem. Leaves opposite or whorled, deciduous, ovate to lanceolate, 2 to 7 cm long, margins toothed, aromatic when crushed. Flowers initially cream, yellow or pink changing to orange or scarlet thus resulting in a multi-colored, short, head-like spike. Fruit greenish-blue or black, one seeded. Found in sandy coastal plain soils Florida to Texas; roadsides, waste places, yards and gardens; persisting after cultivation and escaping.

This ornamental shrub contains lantanin, a triterpenoid, and other compounds irritating to the mucosa of the gastrointestinal tract. All parts of the plant are quite toxic and poisoning may occur year-round, but is most common in summer and fall. Many poisoning cases occur when clippings are thrown into the pasture.

Sheep, cattle, horses, and humans are sensitive to the effects of the plant. Children have been poisoned by eating the berries.

Cattle are most often affected. There are two forms of toxicity: acute and chronic. The acute form usually occurs within 24 hours after eating the plants with the animal exhibiting gastroenteritis with bloody, watery feces. Severe weakness and paralysis of the limbs are followed by death in three to four days. The chronic form is characterized by jaundiced mucous membranes, photosensitization, ulcerations of the mucous membranes of the nose and oral cavity. The skin may peel, leaving raw areas that are vulnerable to blowfly strike and bacterial infection. Severe keratitis may result in temporary or permanent blindness.

Removal of animals from direct sunlight, the use of antibiotic injections and topical applications of protective antibiotic creams are suggested.

Annual, biennial or perennial herbs with a pungent odor when crushed. Leaves alternate, simple to highly dissected, often basal with only a few on the upper stem. Flowers borne in a raceme or solitary on a leafless or nearly leafless stem, mostly bright yellow. Fruit dry, dehiscent, 1.5 to 7 cm long, much longer than wide. Seeds numerous, black or brown, globular, 1.5 to 3 mm in diameter. Found throughout the south in fields, pastures, roadsides, lawns, waste places and some in cultivated ground.

Members of the mustard family contain isothiocyanates, commonly called mustard oils. Certain members, such as the rutabaga, have produced goiter in livestock experimentally due to its high goitrogenic substance concentration. Animals are most often poisoned from spring to fall but can show symptoms of toxicity throughout the year if hay is contaminated with a large amount of mustard. All parts of the plant are toxic but especially the seeds. Swine, cattle, and horses are susceptible.

Symptoms are primarily those of a severe gastroenteritis due to irritation of the mucous membranes. Abdominal pain, salivation and diarrhea are commonly seen. Symptoms are primarily those of a severe gastroenteritis due to irritation of the mucous membranes. Abdominal pain, salivation and diarrhea are commonly seen. Rape, a winter annual, often causes a series of problems including pulmonary emphysema, diarrhea, blindness and hemoglobinuria. Photosensitization has been seen in swine and light-skinned animals. Abortions have been recorded in sows.

Rape, a winter annual, often causes a series of problems including pulmonary emphysema, diarrhea, blindness and hemoglobinuria. Photosensitization has been seen in swine and light-skinned animals. Abortions have been recorded in sows.

There is no effective treatment. Prevention is aimed at including hay free of mustards in the diet or if rape forage is being utilized, allowing access to other types of pastures.

Erect, diffusely branched, perennial herb; smaller stems wing-angled. Leaves with tiny, nearly clear spots, opposite, elliptic to oblong, usually five-veined, entire, 1 to 2.5 cm long, 2.5 to 11 mm, wide, base clasping, sessile. Flowers deep yellow; petals 7 to 10 min long, with tiny, black spots; borne in decompounds, flat-topped clusters. Fruit, a many seeded capsule, ovoid, 3.5 to 5.5 mm long, 2.5 to 4 mm broad. Seeds brown, 1 to 1.2 min long. Found throughout the south; dry fields, waste places, roadsides, mostly in piedmont or mountains.

A red fluorescent pigment, hypericin, is the toxic agent. It is a primary photosensitizing compound although the liver is not affected. Light areas of the skin surface become hypersensitive to sunlight. Cattle, sheep and horses are affected; also goats, but to a lesser degree. Animals are poisoned by eating the fresh plant or dried hay. The toxic principle is not destroyed by drying or excessive heat. Younger plants are more palatable than the older ones.

In cattle, consumption of the toxic plant amounting to one percent of the body weight is toxic. Photosensitization is noticed within two days to three weeks after ingestion. The white skin peels off and may hang from the body before failing away. Affected animals exhibit itching and try to scratch themselves on objects. Blindness often results from inflammation and secondary infection of the cornea. Animals occasionally have convulsions in the acute form of poisoning. More commonly, however, the photosensitization results in secondary infection of the affected areas. Animals may actually die of starvation.

Remove animals from contaminated pastures to barns, woods, pasture or areas where animals have access to shade. Affected skin areas should be treated with antibacterial preparations as well

The toxin in St. Johns wort is called hypericin. When animals ingest the plant, the hypericin is absorbed from the intestinal tract and goes into the circulation. Hypericin is photodynamic, able to convert sunlight into energy (primarily heat), causing cellular damage and sunburn (which can be severe). Cattle and sheep are the most sensitive to this toxin.

Some Other Poisonous Plants
Comparatively few plants containing poisons grow in areas usually used as pastures.

Bracken fern is very common in wooded areas and unimproved pastures. Most animals will not eat bracken fern if there is adequate pasture or other feed. In ruminants, such as goats, bracken fern must be consumed over a period of several weeks before toxicity signs develop. Affected animals are listless, show weight loss and may exhibit small hemorrhages on the mucous membranes. They may die from internal hemorrhages.

Buttercups contain an acrid, volatile alkaloid-amenenol, strong enough to blister the skin and cause inflammation of the intestinal tract. Cattle and goats poisoned by buttercups produce bitter milk and a reddish color. The toxic material volatilizes and is lost when buttercups are dried as in hay. A heavy growth of buttercup is an indication of low soil fertility. Have the soil analyzed and apply ground lime and fertilizers as their need is shown. The increased grass growth soon crowds out buttercups.

Volatile or Essential Oils as Poisonous Principle Baneberry Buttercups Crowfoot Ground Ivy Lobelia Snakeberry Spurge White Cohish.

Poison ivy is widespread over most of the United States. It's a shrub or vine with woody stems that climb by attaching aerial rootlets to fences, walls, trees, etc. Leaves have three leaflets, glossy green and smooth at the edges. Inflammation of the skin from contact with the plants is an affliction of goat-keepers more frequently than of goats. The infection can become serious and may need medical attention. Kill poison ivy with a herbicide.

Saponin Containing Plants
Bagpod, Coffee weed, Purple sesban, Rattlebox, Soapwort

Plants That cause and Produce Mechanical Injury
A number of plants may have a spiny covering, long beards, fine hairs and when eaten may cause mechanical injuries or form hair balls in the stomach and intestines. Clover, Cocklebur, Downy Brome grass, Sand Bur, Squirrel tail grass, squirrel-tail grass, poverty grass, mesquite are some of the offending plants.

common cocklebur
Xanthium pensylvanicum

This plant is very common in our area. The seeds and seedlings are the most toxic, but the entire plant can cause problems. Signs of toxicity include stomach and intestinal irritation, weakness, breathing difficulty, behavioral changes, heart abnormalities, and death.

Coarse, widely branching, annual herb .2 to 1.7 in tall. Leaves alternate, simple, coarsely pubescent, shallowly 3 to 5 lobed. Flowers green inconspicuous, male and female borne in separate clusters. Fruit broadly cylindrical, to nearly spherical, spiny, 1.5 to 3 cm long including spines, two-seeded, greenish to brown at maturity. Found throughout the south; most abundant in fertile soil in gardens, fields, roadsides and other areas having nearly full sunlight.

The toxic principle is the glycoside, hydroquinone. It is concentrated in the seeds and seedlings (cotyledon stage). Mature plants are distasteful to animals and contain less of the toxin.

Swine are the animals most commonly poisoned. They root up and ingest the two-leaf stage of the plant in the springtime. Symptoms include vomiting and gastrointestinal irritation with occasional diarrhea. Large amounts often cause nervous symptoms including spasmodic running movements and convulsions. Chickens and other livestock have also been poisoned.

Goats are fairly resistant to oak poisoning but it does happen. Oak is most dangerous early in the spring when the leaves and buds are the highest in toxicity and when there is little else to eat. The fall is another at risk period, when acorns and leaves fall and better forage dies back. Therefore, management plays a key role in preventing oak toxicosis. The toxins in oak are called Gallo toxins and are converted in the body to tannic acid, Gallic acid and pyrogallol, all of which are very toxic to the kidney. It is the resulting kidney failure that causes the clinical signs. Typically, a significant amount of oak needs to be consumed over a period of time before clinical signs appear. Signs can develop over 2 to 14 days, or signs may be present with the animals becoming progressively worse over many weeks. The number of animals affected in the herd can vary greatly, but of those showing clinical signs, up to 80% may die. Signs of oak poisoning can include depression, lack of appetite, a gaunt and emaciated appearance, poor or rough hair coat, dependent edema (fluid buildup under the skin under the neck, abdomen or on the legs), digestive disturbances (both diarrhea and constipation have been reported, with mucus covered or tarry stools), increased drinking, passage of copious amounts of urine which may contain blood, and death.

Leaves of Three, Let it Be!

Recognizing and removing Poison Ivy

bitter sneezeweed
Helenium amarum

BLACK CHERRY
Prunus serotina

choke cherry Prunus virginiana

cherry laurel
Prunus caroliniana laurocerasus

sheep laurel
Kalmia angustifolia

showy crotalaria
Crotalaria spectabilis

lantana
camara

common cocklebur
Xanthium pensylvanicum

This plant is very common in our area. The seeds and seedlings are the most toxic, but the entire plant can cause problems. Signs of toxicity include stomach and intestinal irritation, weakness, breathing difficulty, behavioral changes, heart abnormalities, and death.

Glossary

Leaves of Three, Let it Be!

Recognizing and removing Poison Ivy

bitter sneezeweed Helenium amarum

BLACK CHERRY Prunus serotina

choke cherry Prunus virginiana

cherry laurel Prunus caroliniana laurocerasus

sheep laurel Kalmia angustifolia

showy crotalaria Crotalaria spectabilis

lantana camara

common cocklebur Xanthium pensylvanicum

This plant is very common in our area. The seeds and seedlings are the most toxic, but the entire plant can cause problems. Signs of toxicity include stomach and intestinal irritation, weakness, breathing difficulty, behavioral changes, heart abnormalities, and death.

Glossary

bitter sneezeweed
Helenium amarum

BLACK CHERRY
Prunus serotina

cherry laurel
Prunus caroliniana laurocerasus

sheep laurel
Kalmia angustifolia

showy crotalaria
Crotalaria spectabilis

lantana
camara

common cocklebur
Xanthium pensylvanicum